Commagene Kingdom – Adıyaman, 2014

Commagene – Gods, Kings and a History Carved in Stone

West of the Euphrates, along the southern foothills of the Taurus Mountains, lay Commagene, a meeting ground of civilizations. The kingdom, which flourished between the second century BCE and the first century CE in the region of present-day Adıyaman, developed an extraordinary artistic and religious language. Its colossal statues, rock reliefs, royal sanctuaries and burial monuments brought together elements of Greek and Iranian traditions.

The region had been influenced by Assyrian, Persian, Macedonian and Seleucid powers before emerging as an independent kingdom as Seleucid authority weakened. Its best-known ruler, Antiochus I Theos, who reigned in the first century BCE, claimed descent from Persian kings on his father's side and Macedonian and Seleucid dynasties on his mother's. He turned this ancestry into a sacred vision of kingship. The names Zeus-Oromasdes, Apollo-Mithras-Helios-Hermes and Artagnes-Heracles-Ares express the merging of divine traditions. Antiochus represented himself alongside these gods, giving his political authority a religious dimension.

Mount Nemrut – The Thrones of Gods and King

On the summit of Mount Nemrut, approximately 2,150 metres above sea level, Antiochus I created one of the ancient world's most remarkable sanctuaries. A huge mound of crushed stone rises between the eastern and western terraces. Monumental seated figures, originally around eight to nine metres high, represented the king, deities and the personification of Commagene, accompanied by protective lions and eagles. Their massive heads now stand on the ground before the bodies, separated over centuries by the deterioration of the monuments and natural forces.

The sculptures combine human features familiar from Greek art with headdresses and clothing reflecting Iranian traditions. On the western terrace, the celebrated Lion Horoscope relief depicts a lion covered with stars and celestial symbols. Its precise historical meaning and proposed dates remain subjects of scholarly debate. Although the great stone mound is widely believed to contain the burial place of Antiochus, no tomb chamber has yet been securely identified. Mount Nemrut was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987.

When I visited Mount Nemrut in 2014, I photographed the eastern and western terraces from different angles, concentrating on the enormous heads, their surviving facial expressions, cracks and weathered stone surfaces. The contrast between the sculpted figures, the mound behind them and the vast mountain landscape made the choice of this remote, elevated setting especially striking.

Arsameia – Where Kings Meet the Gods

Overlooking the ancient Nymphaios valley, Arsameia was an important dynastic and ceremonial centre. Its foundation is associated with Arsames of the Orontid dynasty in the third century BCE. The site was later developed by Commagene's rulers as a place devoted to royal ancestors. Its most famous monument is the rock relief showing Antiochus I shaking hands with Heracles. Known as a dexiosis scene, the gesture expresses a privileged relationship between the king and a god.

Nearby, a long Greek inscription cut into the rock records Antiochus's religious regulations and commemorates his father, Mithridates I Callinicus. Rock-cut passages, steps and other remains form part of this remarkable landscape, although not every feature's original function is certain. I photographed both the handshake relief and the inscription in 2014, trying to preserve the details of the figures, the joined hands, the lettering and the texture of the stone.

Karakuş Tumulus – A Memorial to Royal Women

Near Kâhta, the Karakuş Tumulus commemorates women of the Commagene royal dynasty. It is associated with King Mithridates II in the first century BCE. Tall columns once surrounded the burial mound, some crowned by animal sculptures. The surviving eagle figure gave the monument its Turkish name, Karakuş, or “black bird.” A relief of two women clasping hands also evokes the dynastic bonds commemorated here. Unlike the colossal divine assembly at Nemrut, Karakuş brings the memory of royal family members to the foreground.

Old Kâhta Castle – From Antiquity to the Middle Ages

Old Kâhta Castle, also called Yeni Kale, occupies a steep rocky height near Arsameia. The location was strategically important in antiquity, but much of the fortification visible today took shape in the medieval period, particularly under the Mamluks. Walls, towers, gateways and water installations follow the difficult terrain. In my 2014 photographs, the castle's weathered masonry merges with the rock beneath it, revealing the continued strategic importance of the valley long after the Commagene kingdom disappeared.

Cendere Bridge – Roman Engineering

Commagene was definitively incorporated into the Roman Empire in 72 CE. One of the most impressive monuments of the later Roman landscape is Cendere Bridge, spanning the ancient Chabinas River near Kâhta. Built around the late second or early third century CE during the reign of Septimius Severus, the bridge is associated with Roman military construction in the region. Its broad stone arch, carefully fitted blocks and monumental columns demonstrate the ambition and technical skill of Roman builders.

The columns honoured Septimius Severus and members of his family. I photographed the bridge from the side to show its great arch and relationship with the stream, and from the approach to record the columns and the roadway. The surviving structure makes it possible to imagine the people, soldiers and caravans that once crossed this valley.

Perre – A Necropolis Cut into Rock

Near the modern city of Adıyaman, Perre was an important settlement of the ancient Commagene region, particularly in Roman times. Its best-known remains are the extensive rock-cut necropolis: tomb chambers, niches, burial benches and entrances carved directly into the bedrock. Some chambers accommodated individual burials, while others were designed for families. These spaces preserve evidence of the funerary traditions of people beyond the royal court.

In Perre in 2014, I photographed the open-air tombs as well as the darker interiors of rock-cut chambers. The arched niches, burial recesses and worn stone surfaces offered a different view of antiquity from Nemrut's royal monuments: here the rock held the memory of families and ordinary inhabitants.

Commagene – My Photographs from 2014

My journey through Adıyaman and the Kâhta region in 2014 brought several historical worlds into one photographic series. At Nemrut, gods and kings appeared on a monumental scale. At Arsameia, political and religious ideas were expressed in a handshake relief and Greek inscriptions. Karakuş recalled the royal family's dead; Old Kâhta Castle revealed later defensive history; Cendere Bridge embodied Roman engineering; and Perre's rock tombs reflected the funerary beliefs of the wider community.

What impressed me most was how differently successive generations worked with stone. At Nemrut, it became colossal divine figures; at Arsameia, carved images and words; at Cendere, a great engineered arch; and at Perre, chambers for the dead. I tried to record not only the monuments as a whole but also expressions, inscriptions, weathered surfaces, architectural details and their relationship with the surrounding landscape. These photographs preserve the appearance of this layered historical heritage as I encountered it in 2014.